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UNDERSTANDING THE BIBLE
THROUGH UNDERSTANDING THE CUSTOMS AND CULTURE OF BIBLE TIMES By Don LaRose Class #8 Copyright (c) 2011 All rights reserved In this session, we are going to consider trades and professions that were alive and well during Bible times, and that played important parts in understanding what is meant in certain portions of the Scriptures. We'll also take a look at music in Bible times during this session; and we will look at the communities in which the Bible characters lived. TRADES AND PROFESSIONS We will begin with the potter. There was a ceramic quarter in the city of Jerusalem. Jeremiah refers to visiting a potter in Jerusalem. In I Chronicles 4, there is a reference to the potters district in the capitol city. "These were the potters...there they dwelt with the king for his work" (I Chronicles 4:23). Note that this was before the time of King David. Of course, this was not in Jerusalem, for David was the king that captured Jerusalem and moved the capitol to that location. There were families or guilds of potters; and, as indicated in the passage above, there were also royal potters. To prepare the clay, the potter must seek out a special type. You may remember that when Judas threw the 30 pieces of silver back into the Temple, the Jewish religious leaders said they could not use "blood money" for religious service, so they purchased a field to bury those who were traveling through the area, and died during their visit. You may remember that the field that was purchased for such burials was called "The Potters Field." It was an area where potters found the type of clay they needed to ply their trade. After finding the right type of clay, it would be brought back to the potter's work area. It would then be mixed with water and trodden by foot until it reached the right consistency. In Isaiah 41, the living God is taunting the idols His people had run after to serve. In verse 25, He uses the well known example of the potter stomping on the clay. He says, "...He shall come upon (these idols)...as the potter treadeth the clay." The potter needed a very specialized piece of equipment: a potter's wheel, to do his work. The potter's wheel consisted of two discs, or wheels, with an axel between them. The lower disc was spun by the potter using his foot. The upper wheel (at sitting or standing height) was the base for the pot or jar being molded. A heap of clay would be on the potter's bench next to the wheel. The potter would place some of the clay on the upper wheel; then spin the bottom wheel with his foot, and begin to shape the clay with his hands. He would make a hole in the top with his thumb, gradually widening it until his entire hand would fit inside. Also on his bench would be a jar of water. Occasionally he would sprinkle some of the water on the item he was making to keep the clay moist so he could continue to form it with his hands. He would then use a small piece of wood to smooth and finish off the outside. The Prophet Jeremiah likened Israel to the potter's clay, and God to the Potter. "O house of Israel, cannot I do with you as this potter? saith the LORD. Behold, as the clay is in the potter's hand, so are ye in mine hand, O house of Israel" (Jeremiah 18:6). Some English Bibles (Catholic Bibles and some others) include books which were never accepted by the Jews as Scripture. They were simply considered as books of Israel's history. One of those was the Book of Ecclesiasticus (not to be confused with the Old Testament Book of Ecclesiastes). In this apocryphal book, there is a reference to the potter. "So is the potter sitting at his work, and turning the wheel about with his feet, who is always anxiously set at this work, and all his handiwork is by number; he will fashion the clay with his arm, and he will bend its strength in front of his feet; he will apply his heart to finish the glazing; and will be wakeful to make clean the furnace" (Ecclesiasticus 38:29-30). If something went wrong in the process: the clay became unpliable, a crack surfaced, the arm broke through, or even if the potter was just not satisfied with it; he would crush it, sprinkle water on it, and start over. Back to Jeremiah 18, just a few verses earlier, Jeremiah tells us that God sent him down to the potter's house to observe. This is what he saw: "...the vessel that he made of clay was marred in the hand of the potter; so he made it again another vessel, as seemed good to the potter to make it" (Jeremiah 18:4). The Apostle Paul used this same idea to point out that God, in His grace has made his children for various purposes in His Body; some very prominent, others for ordinary uses "...that He might make known the riches of His glory" (Romans 9:23). Some believers might be unhappy with their position. But Paul writes, "Shall the thing formed say to him that formed it, Why hast thou made me thus? Hath not the potter power over the clay, of the same lump to make one vessel unto honor, and another unto dishonor" (Romans 9:20-21)? After the item the potter was making had been formed on the wheel, it was time to bake it. The baking took place in a brick kiln; a stone or brick oven 4 to 8 feet deep and 8 to 10 feet in diameter. The vessels the potter had formed would be piled up in a cone shape above it as high as 12 feet for baking. Sometimes vessels would crack in the baking process. Two things could happen to such vessels. The crack would be filled with wax. However, such a vessel would have limited uses. This is where we get our English word "sincere." It means "without wax" - a perfect vessel. Or the vessel might be smashed and discarded. Good vessels, after baking, might have a finish applied, or even be decorated. Another trade during Bible times was that of the carpenter. It is a certainty that Jesus was trained by His earthly father, Joseph, as a carpenter. Trades remained in the family. The biblical carpenter had four tools according to Isaiah 44: hammer, saw, plane and a bow drill. Excavations at Gezer in Israel have revealed flint edged saws and both bronze and iron nails. Biblical carpenters produced plows and yokes, potters' wheels, wooden locks and keys, doors, roofs and windows, stools, chests, lattice work and also decorative work for doors and walls. Notice that biblical carpenters did not build buildings. Houses and other structures were made of stone. Carpenters might build roofs, lattice work or shutters for windows, doors and even locks and keys. Most of their work was created in their home workshop and transported to the location it was to be used. These carpenters were very skilled. Using primitive tools they were able to produce products which rival or even exceed the quality of products we make today with machinery. Still another trade found in Bible times was that of the hunter. The first hunter identified as such in the Bible was Nimrod (Genesis 10:9), where he is called a "mighty hunter." In the following verse, he is also listed as the King of Babel (you may remember the Tower of Babel). Secular history tells us that he and his wife were the founders of Sun god worship, which was the major religion of all ancient civilizations from Babylon to Egypt to Rome. Ishmael, the first son of Abraham, by Sarah's slave Hagar, was a hunter by trade, becoming an "expert archer" (Genesis 21:20). Isaac's son Esau is said to have been a "skilled hunter" (Genesis 25:27). Even the Law of Moses made provision for hunting for food. However, unlike other ancient peoples, the Jews were required by God's Law to make sure that all of the blood had been removed before they ate any meat, and the blood had to be buried. "And whatsoever man there be of the children of Israel, or of the strangers that sojourn among you, which hunteth and catcheth any beast or fowl that may be eaten; he shall even pour out the blood thereof, and cover it with dust" (Leviticus 17:13). Fishing is another trade found in the Bible. While fishing takes a very prominent position in the New Testament, it is also found in the Old Testament. Fishing took place in the Mediterranean Sea, the Sea of Galilee and in the streams and rivers of the Holy Land. Note that there was no fishing in the Dead Sea, for there was no life in the Dead Sea, hence the name. Today there are no commercial fishing vessels on the Sea of Galilee, but in the time of Jesus there were many commercial fishermen from the villages which dotted the shore. There are several methods of fishing found in the Bible. From the New Testament we are aware that some of the disciples were fishermen, and they used nets to catch fish. In fact several of Jesus' miracles involved the disciples and their nets. But you may remember that on one occasion Jesus told Peter to take a line and a hook and catch a particular fish which had a coin in its mouth. In restaurants around the Sea of Galilee today you can find Saint Peter's Fish on the menu. Who knows whether or not the fish on the menu today, and the fish on Peter's hook 2000 years ago are the same species of fish? The Old Testament the Book of Job refers to spear fishing. Then, there were also masons. Masons built houses, buildings and terrace walls. In II Kings and in Chronicles, we find the masons actually cut rock at the quarry so precisely that when the stones were brought to the Temple construction site, every block fit perfectly. No noise was allowed at the Temple site. Masons also built foundations, corner stones, keystones and support columns. They worked with plumbline, measuring reed, chisel and hammer. Another major trade area was metal workers. We tend to think of these ancient people as more Stone Age than anything else. Perhaps evolutionists have biased our thinking. However, back before the times of the kings of Israel, the Bible speaks of blacksmiths, coppersmiths, silversmiths and goldsmiths. Back when Samuel was priest and judge in Israel, before the time of King Saul and King David, the Philistines had overrun the land. They had outlawed all iron and copper making. Why? This is what the Bible says, "Now there was no smith found throughout all the land of Israel; for the Philistines said, Lest the Hebrews make them swords or spears" (I Samuel 13:19). Blacksmiths would also make armor, swords and spear tips. While carpenters made the plows, the blacksmiths made the plow tips that went on the ox pulled wooden plows. The Valley of Ajalon in Israel became known as the valley of smiths. Isaiah wrote of the blacksmiths saying, "...smiths with the tongs both worketh in the coals, and fashioneth it with hammers" (Isaiah 44:12). Other metal workers found in the Old Testament were coppersmiths. As a matter of fact, during the reign of King Solomon, the entire valley leading to the Gulf of Aqaba (the eastern arm of the Red Sea) was filled with iron and copper workers. And in the area around Ezion-geber, Solomon had both iron and copper smelters. The system used was very much like the Bessemer process for making steel used in the United States during most of the 20th Century. Coppersmiths were not limited to Israel. During the building of the Temple in Jerusalem, we are told, "And the pots, and the shovels, and the basons: and all these vessels, which Hiram (Hiram was king to the north of Israel in what we call Lebanon today) made to King Solomon for the house of the Lord, were of bright brass [burnished copper]" (I Kings 7:45). The Bible also indicates that there were goldsmiths and silversmiths. The first such are recorded during the exodus from Egypt. When God ordained the design for the Tabernacle in the wilderness, it required goldsmiths and silversmiths. Nehemiah, many hundreds of years later also mentions goldsmiths; and Peter used the goldsmith to illustrate the trial of the believer's faith. He wrote, "That the trial of your faith, being much more precious than of gold that perisheth...might be found unto praise and honor" (I Peter 1:7). There were also tanners and dyers in Bible times. In Acts 9:43 it is recorded that Peter stayed at the home of Simon the tanner. There are still tanneries today in the Hebron area which is under Arab control. In Bible times tanners made sheepskins into shoe leather and goat skins into bottles which were usually hung from the tent posts. Lydia, in Acts 16:14, who lived and plied her business at Thyatira, was a seller of purple. Royal purple was made from a rare and special shell fish. Other brilliant colors were found in that area from natural substances for dying cloth. Then there were tentmakers. The Bible tells us that the Apostle Paul supported himself as a tentmaker as he travelled from city to city preaching the Good News of the Jewish Messiah (Jesus). He practiced his trade wherever he went. There is a great deal of misunderstanding as to what it was that Paul made and sold. He did not make tents that people lived in. Paul went to cities where people did not live in tents. Also, he could not have travelled with everything needed to make tent-houses. Out over the countryside people lived in large tents made of goat hair. They spun the thread and weaved the large tarps that became their homes. Nomads in the middle east still do this today. Paul was making "talits." These were the prayer shawls or "prayer tents" used by the Jews then and now for their times alone with the Lord. It is this endeavor which probably brought him into contact with Lydia, a maker of purple dyes, because these "talits" were generally multi-colored, and purple and blue were among the favorite colors. Have you ever heard the term "tentmaker missionary?" Back when I was a boy, that was a common term in the church. Most Christians today have no idea what a tentmaker missionary is. A tentmaker missionary is one who goes to a foreign country to tell people about the Lord, but does not go under a mission board with the financial support of a church back home. They go to the foreign field, working to support themselves. Some are teachers, or engineers; doctors, dentists, nurses, and many others. The term comes from the Apostle Paul who was a tentmaker missionary. He supported himself; sometimes even refusing the financial help of the churches he started. In the Greek cities outside of Israel, the Jews would sit by trade in the synagogues. Dr. Edersheim writes: "In Alexandria (Egypt), the different trades sat in the synagogue arranged into guilds, and Saint Paul could have no difficulty in meeting in the bazaar of his trade with the like-minded Aquila and Priscilla with whom to find lodging." There were also merchants who would congregate daily in the market place of the cities. The market place was generally at the main gate to the city. In Roman cities, it would be a large round area surrounded by large columns. Each merchant would take up a spot between two columns. The center would be occupied by government officials, carrying on the work of the city, including judging disputes between resident. And frequently there would be philosophers and religious personalities who would stand in the market place center and preach their ideas. We know that the Apostle Paul used this podium on numerous occasions, and that he had converts to Christ from among the Gentiles in these cities. In these market places, or bazaars, one could find goods brought by camel caravans: dry goods, grocery items, tin utensils, leather goods, sweet meats, etc. There was no fixed price. Dickering for one item could take anywhere from a few minutes to an hour. King Solomon referred to this way of making a purchase when he wrote, "It is bad, it is bad, saith the buyer; but when he is gone his way, then he boasteth" (Proverbs 20:14). This still occurs today. In the Arab portion of Jerusalem my wife saw a camel skin purse with beautiful etchings on the side. She started out $20.00 lower than the proprietor. Back and forth they went. We finally left the shop and went to a shop across the street. Within a few minutes the first shopkeeper crossed the street and offered a lower, acceptable price. How would one pay for their purchase? There were several ways to pay. They most times would barter (particularly in the Old Testament), or you could trade days of work for items of value. Also, in the Old Testament you often read of people of means purchasing items with gold or silver be weighed out. Coins began to come into play about 700 years before the time of Christ, and by the time Jesus came on the scene, most merchandise was being paid for by Roman coins. The use of coins to pay bills sparked a new type of trade, which drew the ire of Jesus when He was in Jerusalem: money changers and bankers. Modern Jerusalem has western style banks today. But in the old city of Jerusalem, merchants still have to deal with money changers. At the end of each business day, merchants approach tourists seeking to change small U.S. bills for larger ones. The reason: when they go to the money changers, they pay less to change a few large bills, than many small bills. The money changers get 10% for a transaction; but they will negotiate a lower percentage for larger bills. In Jesus' day the money changers sat in the Court of the Gentiles in the Temple. The Temple Tax was a half shekel for each male. The people had Roman coins which were unacceptable in the Temple. Therefore, they had to be changed for Jewish shekels, which were required for the Temple, but not permitted in daily commerce. So, the people had to change their Roman coins for Temple shekels. The Talmud (the Jewish commentary on the Old Testament and on Jewish life) says that the money changers charged the people 12%. They also would provide (for a price) the exact change needed to purchase animals or doves with which to make sacrifices in the Temple. Money changers could make over $50,000 a year (in terms of our money today), while the average Jew of Jesus' time made about $5,000 per year. Then, finally, there were the tax gatherers, or tax collectors for the Roman government. In the New Testament they are called Publicans or tax collectors. Most Jews hated the Publicans because they were living under a hated occupying army and had to pay taxes to a foreign government and live under their rules. They considered the Publicans to be traitors. Not only did these Jewish citizens who had linked up with the hated Roman government collect taxes for the Romans, but they increased the tax amount to enrich themselves. And it was not illegal for them to do so. Luke records, "Then came also publicans to be baptized, and said unto him, Master, what shall we do? And he said unto them, Exact no more than that which is appointed you" (Luke 3:12-13). Notice that Jesus did not condemn their occupation; He condemned their extortion. The Jews catagorized Publicans as among the worst of sinners. You read of them in combinations like: "Publicans and harlots," and "Pubicans and sinners" in the Bible. Because Jesus ministered to, and ate with Publicans, the religious leaders of His day called Him "a friend of Publicans and sinners." That was, to them, as bad a slur as they could think of against the Savior. Matthew, one of Jesus' disciples, and the author of The Gospel According to Matthew, the first book of the New Testament, was a tax collector before he met Jesus. He was in charge of the customs office on the caravan road from Damascus to Acre, which was located near Capernaum. He charged taxes to travelers and traders that were crossing the border between the Roman jurisdictions. His "toll booth" was open seven days a week, thereby causing him to violate the Sabbath. When Jesus saw him, He said, "Follow me" (Luke 5:27). Matthew followed Jesus, and became a man of God. Then there was Zacchius, a tax commissioner in charge of an entire district. He had heard much about Jesus, and invited Him to come to his house for dinner. The Pharisees condemned Jesus for eating with the hated tax collector. But when it was over, Zacchius was a converted man. He said, "If I have taken anything from any man by false accusation, I restore him fourfold" (Luke 19:8). MUSIC IN BIBLE TIMES The vocation of Biblical characters took up the major portion of their time. Making a livelihood in ancient times was very time consuming. But music was also a large part of the life of people in Bible times. We go but a few chapters into the first book of the Bible before coming to a mention of music. Jubal is the first musician mentioned in the Bible; and he is described as "...the father of all such as handle the harp and pipe" (Genesis 4:21). He was quite possibly the inventor or these two instruments. We know that Babylonian musical instruments preceeded the time of Abraham. Excavations of a royal tomb at the ancient city of Babylon revealed four harps covered with gold, and much beautiful artwork. Timbrels used at banquets and religious gathrings were also found. Isaac's son Jacob had left the Promised Land to go to his uncle Laben's house at Haran. There he worked for many years for his uncle for his wives and his flocks. There came a time when he gathered his family, servants and flocks together and headed back to the land of his fathers. Laben followed after him and complained, "Wherefore didst thou flee away secretly...that I might have sent thee away with mirth, and with songs, with tabret, and with harp" (Genesis 31:27). Egyptian music and intruments influenced Moses and Israel. Music was an important part of the educational system of Egypt. Excavations have revealed numerous musical instruments, including: harps, lyres, flutes, tambourines, and cymbals. Dancing was also commonly used in connection with music in Egypt. After the Israelites had left Egypt and miraculously crossed the Red Sea, they held a tremendous musical victory celebration. It says, "And Miriam the prophetess, the sister of Aaron, took a timbrel in her hand; and all the women went out after her with timbrels and with dances" (Exodus 15:20). A trimbrel was a circular hoop made of wood or brass and covered with a skin which was drawn tightly; with small bells hanging around the sides. By the way, Moses also recorded the words of the music which they sang. Israel also used trumpets. There are several different kinds of trumpets in the Bible. Hebrew trumpets included: the horn of an ox or ram (called a shofar), they also had curved metalic trumpets, and later they had straight trumpets. Moses was commanded by the Lord to make two silver trumpets. In Numbers 10:2, God commanded that these two silver trumpets were to be blown when calling an assembly, and when it was time to pick up the camp and travel on. A few verses later (Numbers 10:9) God commanded that these same two trumpets were to be blown after they entered the Promised Land in the event they were invaded, to let the people know that they should assemble for war. In Leviticus 25:8-9, it is indicated that the Year of Jubilee (every 50th year), was to be ushered in beginning with the blowing of these silver trumpets on the Day of Atonement. There are numerous passages of Scripture which indicate that music was used in connection with a certain event. These include: after a victory in war (I Samuel 18:6), at the coronation of the boy king, Josiah (II Chronicles 23:13), at banquets (Isaiah 5:12), and more. The prophets used musical instruments. Beginning with Samuel, the prophets made much of music and musical instruments. "Thou shalt meet a company of prophets coming down from the high place with a psaltery, and a tabret, and a pipe, and a harp, before them; and they shall prophesy" (I Samuel 10:5). Then there was the example of the Prophet Elisha, who said, "But now bring me a minstrel. And it came to pass, when the minstrel played, that the hand of the Lord came upon him" (II Kings 3:15). King David made a huge contribution to the music of Israel. He was both a writer and collector of music. David wrote many of the Psalms; and he collected many of the other Psalms. God used him to compile the Psalms, which became Israel's hymnbook. David was also an inventor and manufacturer of musical instruments. "Four thousand praised the Lord with the instruments which I made, said David, to praise therewith" (I Chronicles 23:5). Long after David had passed on to his reward, it was written, "And the Levites stood with the instruments of David" (II Chronicles 29:26). David also appointed some musicians to be over other musicians. In I Chronicles 16, David appoints various people to be in charge of worship before the Ark of God. When you get down to verse 42, he appoints Heman and Jeduthun, "with trumpets and cymbols for those who should sound aloud, and with musical instruments for the songs of God..." In chapter 25 all the singers and musicians which were under Heman are listed. Heman, by the way, had fourteen sons and three daughters (verse 5). When we think of songs in the Bible, we immediately think of the Psalms. However, there are many songs in other books of the Hebrew Bible. We find the song that was sung by Moses and Miriam after crossing the Red Sea in Exodus 15. When God gave water in the wilderness, they sang a song recorded in Numbers 21. Moses put his final instructions to Israel in the form of a song in Deuteronomy 32. You will find the Song of Deborah in Judges 5 and the Song of Hannah in I Samuel 2. The Song of Solomon is a song which celebrates the love between the Lord and His bride, Israel. There are a number of others, as well. It is also interesting to note that, particularly in the Old Testament, the absence of music has real significance. The Prophet Isaiah predicted, "The mirth of tabrets ceaseth, the noise of them that rejoice endeth, the joy of the harp ceaseth" (Isaiah 24:8). He was saying that when the rebellious people of God would be removed from the land by invading armies at God's direction, there would be an end to the music which normally was heard throughout the city. The Babylonians had heard of the beautiful music known to the land of Israel. They wanted to hear it. But the captives refused to sing any of their music while in captivity. So, they composed a new song. "By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat down, yea, we wept, when we remembered Zion. We hanged our harps (lyres) upon the willows in the midst thereof. For there they that carried us away captive required of us a song; and they that wasted us required of us mirth, saying, Sing us one of the songs of Zion. How shall we sing the Lord's song in a strange land? If I forget thee, O Jerusalem, let my right hand forget her cunning" (Psalm 137:1-5). Their music was so tied to the temple, they refused to sing it in a foreign land. There are four references to music during the earthly ministry of our Lord Jesus. The first was when Jesus came into the home of the ruler whose daughter had died, Matthew says, "He saw the flute players." Earlier we discussed the hiring of professional mourners for funerals. Professional musicians also were a part of such times. The second reference to music is found in Luke 7:32, "We played the wedding march for you, but you did not dance. We sang the funeral dirge, but you did not mourn." Jesus was chiding the Pharisees for not responding to the gospel message He brought. They weren't for it; they weren't against it. They simply wanted to igore the Savior, and did so as long as they could. The third comes in the parable of the Prodigal Son. When the son returns home, he is given a banquet. During this special occasion, the older brother comes in from the field, and Jesus said he heard "the music and dancing." It was customary to have instruments and dances for very special events. By-the-way, the younger son was the one that should have been out in the field watching the flocks. But because he had run away, the older brother was forced to do the work that the youngest son traditionally should have been doing in the family heirarchy. The fourth reference to music comes at the end of the "Last Supper." Mark 14:26 tells us, "And when they had sung an hymn, they went out into the Mount of Olives." This was during the Spring Feasts of the Lord (Unleavned Bread, Passover and First Fruits). The Last Supper was the evening which began "The Day of Preparation" for Passover. The next day thousands of Passover lambs would be slain in the temple - one for each family to celebrate Passover the evening after "The Last Supper." It was traditional at this time of year to sing Psalms 115 to 118. They likely sang one of those Psalms. Orthodox Jews still do that today. Songs are not limited to the Old Testament. There are also songs recorded for us in the New Testament, some of which are not ordinarily thought of as being songs. They include: * The Magnificat or Song of Mary (Luke 1:46-55) * The Benedictus or Song of Zacharias after the birth of John the Baptist (Luke 1:67-69) * Song of the Angels, as they sang to the shepherds (Luke 2:14) * The Apostle Paul's Hymn of Redemption (Ephesians 1:3-14) * The Hymn of the Early Church (I Timothy 3:16) There are also references to songs in the Book of the Revelation of Jesus Christ: * A "New Song" is sung in Heaven (Revelation 5:9-10) * "The Song of Moses" and "The Song of the Lamb" (Revelation 15:3-4) * The fall of Babylon is described in Revelation 18:22, as a time when, "...the voice of harpers, and musicians, and of pipers, and tumpeters, shall be heard no more at all in thee." * In his vision of Heaven, the Apostle John heard "...the voice of harpers harping with their harps," and a song was sung before God's throne. Trades and professions, and music in Bible times, if understood properly can make a big difference in our understanding of the Bible. We will begin our next session by talking about towns and cities in Bible times. ____________________________________ New Study Manual Now Available... Understanding the Bible By Understanding THE CULTURE & CUSTOMS OF BIBLE TIMES * Over 200 pages * 27 chapters * Illustrative drawings * Photos from the Holy Land * And much more Great for Bible Study groups, Sunday School classes, etc. Each chapter ends with "Review Questions," "Things to Remember" and "What Does This Mean to Me?" Send $12.95 plus $4.00 shipping and handling to: Don LaRose P. O. Box 95 Centerton, AR 72719 Order 7 or more books (one, or mixed titles from any page on this website) and take a 10% discount. One $4.00 S & H covers all books ordered at the same time. It is our purpose to get these books into the hands of as many people as will benefit from them. If you are unable to afford the cost of these books, please let us know. We trust the Lord to make up the cost of your books through gifts from God's children. ____________________________________ Return to Home Page Click here to go on to Class #9 _________________________________________________________________ |
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